Xun Zi, a Chinese Confucian philosopher

Xun Zi (312–230 BCE) was a Chinese Confucian philosopher who lived during the Warring States Period and contributed to one of the Hundred Schools of Thought. Xun Zi believed man’s inborn tendencies need to be curbed through education and ritual, counter to Mencius’s view that man is innately good. This is similar to Thomas Hobbes’s idea that men are naturally evil, and they have to be led by a greater power to stop competing each other.

He believed that ethical norms had been invented to rectify mankind. Educated in the state of Qi, Xun Zi was associated with the Confucian school, but his philosophy has a more pragmatic flavour compared to Confucian optimism. Some scholars attribute it to the divisive times.Xun Zi was born with the name Xun Kuang, courtesy name Qing. Some texts recorded his surname as Sun instead of Xun, either because the two surnames were homophones in antiquity or Sun was selected due to Xun being a naming taboo at some point in history.

The name “Xun Zi” is just a title that means “Master Xun”. The early years of Xun Zi’s life are enshrouded in mystery, since he was first known at the age of fifty, around 264 BC, when he went to the state of Qi to study and teach. Xun Zi was well-respected in Qi, with the King Xiang of Qi (齊襄王) honouring him as a teacher and a libationer. It was around this time that Xun Zi visited the state of Qin and praised its governance, and debated military affairs with Lord Linwu in the court of King Xiaocheng of Zhao. Later, Xun Zi became slandered in the Qi court, and he retreated south to the state of Chu, where Lord Chunshen of Chu, the prime minister, gave him a position as Magistrate of Lanling. In 238 BC, Lord Chunshen was assassinated by a court rival and Xun Zi subsequently lost his position. Xun Zi remained in Lanling, a region in what is today’s southern Shandong province, for the rest of his life and was buried there. The year of his death is unknown. Of his disciples, the most notable are Li Si (prime minister to the first Qin emperor) and the Han state royal Han Feizi, who developed the quasi-authoritarian aspects of his thought into the doctrine called the School of Law, or Legalism. Because of Li Si and Han Feizi’s staunch anti-Confucian stances, Xun Zi’s reputation as a Confucian philosopher has often come into question.While Xun Zi’s doctrines was influential in forming the official state doctrine of the Han Dynasty, his influence waned compared to Mencius during the Tang Dynasty.

The Xunzi

Unlike the aphoristic style of the Analects and Mencius, Xun Zi was a more rigorous thinker and wrote elaborately argued essays, which were collected into the book called Xunzi (the single word spelling indicates the book). He distinguishes what is born in man and what must be learned through rigorous education. These essays are often critical of competing schools, such as Daoism and Mohism, as well as rival schools within Confucianism. Some of the more significant chapters are:

* “Discussion of heaven (天 tian)” rejects the Mencian notion that heaven has a moral will. Instead, Xun Zi asserts that heaven is simply the natural world; thus people should focus on the human, social realm, rather than dealing with heavenly ideas.

* “Discussion of Ritual Propriety (li),” discusses rules of individual and social conduct (decorum). * “Dispelling Obsessions,” being too focused on only one aspect of a situation, one often loses sight of the larger purpose.

* “Proper Use of Terms” (正名 zhengming): A name becomes proper for a situation through conventional usage, but once this is fixed, it is improper to deviate from these norms. Thus he adopts a conventional view for the origin of the sound-to-meaning mapping, although the objects signified by the term remain real. The term Zhengming often appears in the English literature as “The Rectification of Names”. This is a misleadingly narrow translation of the Chinese title. In classical Chinese, the phrase “正名 (zhengming)” could be interpreted either as “rectifying names” or as “correct/right names”.

* “Human Dispositions are Detestable” (xing e): Rejects Mencius’ claim that people have a natural inclination toward goodness. Confucius, who simply said that people are similar by nature, was not clear on the matter. Xun Zi holds that man is naturally inclined towards selfishness and evil, and that if these inclinations are not curbed, human societies would devolve into anarchy. He views morality as a social construct, emphasizing the difference between nature and nurture.

Mohism, a Chinese Philosophy Developed by the Followers of Mozi

Mohism or Moism was a Chinese philosophy developed by the followers of Mozi (also referred to as Mo Tzu, Latinized as Micius), 470 BCE–c.391 BC. It evolved at about the same time as Confucianism, Taoism and Legalism and was one of the four main philosophic schools during the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period (from 770 BCE to 221 BCE). During that time, Mohism was seen as a major rival to Confucianism. The Qin dynasty, which united China in 221 BCE, adopted Legalism as the official government philosophy and suppressed all other philosophic schools. The Han dynasty that followed adopted Confucianism as the official state philosophy, as did most other successive dynasties, and Mohism all but disappeared as a separate school of thought.Mohism is best known for the concept of “impartial care” or “universal love”. Mozi’s philosophy was described in the book Mozi, compiled by his students from his lecture notes.

Discipline and Motivations
A ruler may have strategies in war, but courage is the fundamental value. A funeral may have many rituals but mourning is the fundamental value. Scholars may have knowledge, but applying the knowledge or practicality is the fundamental value. If the fundamentals are not strong, good works cannot be done. Mozi taught that a good man must discipline himself: he should avoid listening to malicious gossip, avoid cursing, avoid murderous thoughts. Mozi taught that the poor should display purity, the rich should show benevolence, to the living show love, to the dead show mourning. The foundation of all human motives should be immeasurable love. Mohists believed that all people share a common humanity and because of that inherent condition, we are selfish and only serve our self-interest. This is why Mohists conflicted with the Confucians and ignored Confucius and his argument for the supremacy of ritual and tradition in human life. Mohists believed in the equality of all people and the pursuit of good works motivated by the right reasons. Confucians believe that if you simply act like a good person, you are; even if you do not have a righteous motivation for those actions. However, Mohists believed that if you acted like a righteous person, such morality was meaningless in the eyes of heaven unless you also truly believed in what you were doing. Mozi believed that good works, if not motivated from the heart, cannot be maintained. He taught that “everyone is equal before heaven”, and that people should seek to imitate heaven by engaging in the practice of impartial and collective love. His epistemology can be regarded as a form of empiricism; he believed that our cognition ought to be based on our perceptions – our sensory experiences, such as sight and hearing – instead of imagination or internal logic, elements founded on our capacity for abstraction.

Knowledge as Action

During the period of Mozi, he felt that the norm of handing out important government responsibilities to one’s relatives regardless of capabilities was the root of poverty in society. Mozi taught that as long as a person was capable for the task, he should be engaged and promoted regardless of blood relations. If an officer were incapable, even if he were a close relative of the ruler, he ought to be downgraded even if it meant poverty. Mozi also emphasized on the power of influence, using the analogy of dyes. A ruler should be in close proximity to talented people, treasuring talents and seeking their counsel frequently. Without discovering and understanding talents within the country, the country will be destroyed. History unfortunately saw many people who were murdered, not because of their frailities but rather because of their strengths. A good bow is difficult to pull, but it shoots high. A good horse is difficult to ride but it can carry weight and travels far. Talented people are difficult to manage, but they can bring respect to their rulers. Law and order was an important aspect of Mozi’s theology. He compared the carpenter who used standard tools to do his work with the ruler who might not have any standards to rule by. The carpenter is always better off depending on his standard tools rather than his emotions. In comparison, it is even more that a ruler uses standards to rule by. These standards cannot originate from man since no man is perfect. The only standards that a ruler uses has to originate from Heaven, since only Heaven is perfect. That law of Heaven is love. In a perfect governmental structure - where the ruler loves all people benevolently, and officials are selected according to meritocracy - the people should have unity in belief and in speech. His original purpose in this teaching was to unite people and avoiding sectarianism. However, in a situation of corruption and tyranny, this teaching became a tool for oppression. Should the ruler be unrighteous, seven disasters would result for that nation. These seven disasters are:

(1) Neglect of the country’s defense, yet there is much lavish on the palace.

(2) When pressurized by foreigners, neighbouring countries are not willing to help.

(3) The people are engaged in unconstructive work while useless bums are rewarded.

(4) Law and regulations became too heavy such that there is repressive fear and people only look after their own good.

(5) The ruler lives in a mistaken illusion of his own ability and his country’s strength.

(6) Trusted people are not loyal while loyal people are not trusted.

(7) Lack of food.

Ministers are not able to carry out their work. Punishment fails to bring fear and reward fails to bring happiness. A country facing these seven disasters will be destroyed easily by the enemy. Unlike Keynesianism’s standards of national wealth which is usually rationalized in terms of first-world development, industrialization, capital and assets appreciation, trade surplus or deficit; the measure of a country’s wealth in Mohism is a matter of sufficient provision and a large population. Thriftiness is believed to be key to this end. With contentment with that which suffices, men will be free from excessive labour, long-term war and poverty from income gap disparity. This will enable birth rate to increase. Mozi also encourages early marriage.

Morality and Impartiality

Mohism promotes a philosophy of impartial caring - a person should care equally for all other individuals, regardless of their actual relationship to him or her. The expression of this indisciminate caring is what makes man a righteous being in Mohist thought. This advocacy of impartiality was a target of attack by the other Chinese philosophical schools, most notably the Confucians who believed that while love should be unconditional, it should not be indiscriminate. For example, children should hold a greater love for their parents than for random strangers. Mozi is known for his insistence that all people are equally deserving of receiving material benefit and being protected from physical harm. In Mohism, morality is defined not by tradition and ritual, but rather by a constant moral guide that parallels utilitarianism. Tradition is inconsistent from culture to culture, and human beings need an extra-traditional guide to identify which traditions are morally acceptable. The moral guide must then promote and encourage social behaviours that maximize the general utility of all the people in that society.

Society

Mozi posited that the existence of society as an organized organism reduces the wastes and inefficiencies found in the natural state. Conflicts are born from the absence of moral uniformity found in man in his natural state, i.e. the absence of the definition of what is right (是 shì) and what is wrong (非 fēi). We must therefore choose leaders who will surround themselves with righteous followers, who will then create the hierarchy that harmonizes Shi/Fei. In that sense, the government becomes an authoritative and automated tool. Assuming that the leaders in the social hierarchy are perfectly conformed to the ruler, who is perfectly submissive to Heaven, conformity in speech and behaviour is expected of all people. There is no freedom of speech in this model. However, the potentially repressive element is countered by compulsory communication between the subjects and their leaders. Subjects are required to report all things good or bad to their rulers. Mohism is opposed to any form of aggression, especially war between states. It is, however, permissible for a state to use force in legitimate defense. Mohist ideology has inspired some modern pacifists.

Wang Yangming

Wang Yangming was a Ming Chinese idealist Neo-Confucian philosopher, official, educationist, calligraphist and general. After Zhu Xi, he is commonly regarded as the most important Neo-Confucian thinker, with interpretations of Confucianism that denied the rationalist dualism of the orthodox philosophy of Zhu Xi. He was known as Yangming Xiansheng or Yangming Zi (both mean “Brilliant Master Yangming”) in literary circles.

Born Wang Shouren in Yuyao, Zhejiang Province, his courtesy name was Bo’an. His father was an earl and a minister of civil personnel. He earned the “recommended person” degree in 1492 and the “presented scholar” degree in 1499. He served as an executive assistant in various government departments until being banished for offending a eunuch in 1506. However, his professional career was later ensured when he became the Governor of Jiangxi.Wang became a successful general and was known for the strict discipline he imposed on his troops, repressing several rebellions.

In 1519 AD, while being governor of Jiangxi province, he repressed the uprising of Prince Zhu Chen-hao, and made one of the earliest references in using the fo-lang-ji in battle, a breech loading culverin cannon imported from the newly-arrived Portuguese venturers to China. While governor of Jiangxi he also built schools, rehabilitated the rebels, and reconstructed what was lost by the enemy during the revolt. Though he was made an earl, he was ostracized for opposing Zhu Xi. Thirty-eight years after his death, he was given the titles Marquis and Completion of Culture. In 1584 he was offered sacrifice in the Confucian Temple, the highest honour for a scholar.
Wang was the leading figure in the Neo-Confucian School of Mind, founded by Lu Jiuyuan of Southern Song. This school championed an interpretation of Mencius (a Classical Confucian who became the focus of later interpretation) that unified knowledge and action. Their rival school, the School of Principle (Li) treated gaining knowledge as a kind of preparation or cultivation that, when completed, could guide action.

Innate Knowing

Out of Cheng-Zhu’s Neo-Confucianism that was mainstream at the time, Wang Yangming developed the idea of innate knowing, arguing that every person knows from birth the difference between good and evil. Such knowledge is intuitive and not rational. These revolutionizing ideas of Wang Yangming would later inspire prominent Japanese thinkers like Motoori Norinaga, who argued that because of the Shinto deities, Japanese people alone had the intuitive ability to distinguish good and evil without complex rationalization. His school of thought (Ōyōmei-gaku in Japanese, Ō stands for the surname “Wang”, yōmei stands for “Yangming”, gaku means “school of learning”) also greatly influenced the Japanese samurai ethic.

Knowledge as Action

Wang’s rejection of the investigation of knowledge comes from the fact that at the time the traditional view of Chinese thought was that once one gained knowledge, he had a duty to put that knowledge into action. This presupposed two possibilities:1. That one can have knowledge without/prior to corresponding action. 2. That one can know what is the proper action, but still fail to act. Wang rejected both of these which allowed him to develop his philosophy of action. Wang believed that only through simultaneous action could one gain knowledge and denied all other ways of gaining it. To him, there was no way to use knowledge after gaining it because he believed that knowledge and action were unified as one. Any knowledge that had been gained then put into action was considered delusion or false.

Mind and the World

He held that objects do not exist entirely apart from the mind because the mind shapes them. He believed that it is not the world that shapes the mind, but the mind that gives reason to the world. Therefore, the mind alone is the source of all reason. He understood this to be an inner light, an innate moral goodness and understanding of what is good. This is similar to the thinking of the Greek philosopher Socrates, who argued that knowledge is virtue. In order to eliminate selfish desires that cloud the mind’s understanding of goodness, one can practice his type of meditation often called “tranquil repose” or “sitting still”. This is similar to the practice of Chan (Zen) meditation in Buddhism.

Wang Yangming is regarded one of the four greatest masters of Confucianism in history along with Confucius, Mencius and Zhu Xi. Wang Yangming found Yaojiang School or Yangming School of Mind, which became one of the dominant confucianism schools in the mid, late Ming period and Qing period China. The typical figures came from this school after Wang were Wang Ji, Qian Dehong, Wang Gen, Huang Zongxi, Li Zhuowu and Liu Zongzhou. Wang Gen formed Taizhou School, which went to leftism of Wang Yangming’s thought.

During late Ming period, Wang Yangming’s thought was derived a lot in China and became a kind of popular learning. The Japanese Admiral of the Russo-Japanese War, Togo Heihachiro, was influenced by Wang, and made a stamp which read, “One’s whole life followed the example of Yangming”. In Japan, many scholars and politicians came from Wang Yangming’s school (Ōyōmei-gaku) in history, including Kumazawa Banzan, Saigō Takamori, Takasugi Shinsaku and Toju Nakae. Toju Nakae is regarded as the founder of Japanese Ōyōmei-gaku. Chiang Kai-shek named a national attraction in Taiwan, Yangmingshan, after Wang. And a road in Nanchang is also named Yangming Road after Wang by Chiang-influenced local officials.

Shinto

Shinto is the name ascribed to the non-Buddhist religious practices of Japan.
Shinto is today thought of as the indigenous religion of Japan.
However, It was formed from various local Japanese religious practices over a long period prior to written Japanese history, influenced by Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism beginning in the 6th century and first codified with the Kojiki and Nihon Shoki in the 8th century as a response to the influx of “new” religious practices.
These earliest Japanese writings do not refer to a unified religion but rather a set of practices that are associated with harvests, and annual events along with a clearly defined creation story.
Shinto today is characterized by polytheism, a strong focus on ritual purity, and involves honoring of Kami, or spirits.
Shinto is a orthopractic (right practice) religion where ritual and practice are of the highest importance in comprehending a world saturated by Kami while honoring and celebrating their existence.
Modern Shinto is not vertical in structure and decentralized, although having modern organizations for cohesion, is not one structure, but a conglomeration of similar local or regional shrine practices and festivals with historical overlays of consistency by dress, building styles, and rituals.
Shinto today has about 119 million adherents in Japan, although a person who practices any manner of Shinto rituals may be considered Shinto, there is some debate as to the actual numbers.
It is generally accepted that the vast majority of Japanese people are Shinto.
This same number may also be considered Buddhist and neither faith has exclusivity within their dogma.
Most people in Japan are both by practice.

Purification rites are a vital part of Shinto.
These may serve to placate any restive kami, for instance when their shrine had to be relocated.
Such ceremonies have also been adapted to modern life.
For example, a ceremony was held in 1969 to hallow the Apollo 11 mission to the moon, new buildings made in Japan are frequently blessed by a Shinto priest kannushi during the groundbreaking ceremony, and many cars made in Japan have been blessed as part of the assembly process.
Moreover, every Japanese car factory built outside Japan has had a groundbreaking ceremony performed by a Shinto priest, with occasionally an annual visitation by the priest to re-purify.
A more personal purification rite is the purification by water.
This may involve standing beneath a waterfall or performing ritual ablutions in a river-mouth or in the sea (misogi).
This practice comes from Shinto history, when the kami Izanagi-no-Mikoto first performed misogi after returning from the land of Yomi, where he was made impure by Izanami-no-Mikoto after her death.
These two forms of purification are often referred to as harae.
A third form of purification is avoidance, that is, the taboo placed on certain persons or acts.
To illustrate, women were not allowed to climb Mount Fuji until 1868, in the era of the Meiji Restoration.
Although this aspect has decreased in recent years, religious Japanese will not use an inauspicious word like “cut” at a wedding, nor will they attend a wedding if they have recently been bereaved.

Shinto teaches that everything contains a kami.
Shinto’s spirits are collectively called yaoyorozu no kami, an expression literally meaning “eight million kami”, but interpreted as meaning “myriad”, although it can be translated as “many Kami”.
Kami come in many of forms where some are local and can be regarded as the spiritual being/spirit of a particular place while others appears to have been defined as eternal and described with more “god” like powers of creation.
Kami may also be ancestors or famous persons of Japanese history elevated to a higher status and available for placation at a shrine.
There is a bit of trouble with the definition of Kami being a “god” in the monotheistic definition of the word, but it is generally accepted to describe any supernatural force that is above the actions of man, and is very inclusive of all religious “god”, spirit figures, and mythological creatures in Shinto belief.
Frequently they are described taking human forms, inhabiting inanimate objects, becoming animals, and manifesting as “ghosts”.
All mythological creatures of the Japanese cultural tradition, of the Buddhistic traditional beliefs, Christian God, Hindu gods, Islamic Allah, various angels and demons of all faiths among others are considered Kami for the purpose of Shinto faith.
Unlike many religions, one does not need to publicly profess belief in Shinto to be a Shintoist.
Whenever a child is born in Japan, a local Shinto shrine adds the child’s name to a list kept at the shrine and declares him or her a “family child”.
After death an ujiko becomes a “family spirit”, or “family kami”.
One may choose to have one’s name added to another list when moving and then be listed at both places.
Names can be added to the list without consent and regardless of the beliefs of the person added to the list.
However, this is not considered an imposition of belief, but a sign of being welcomed by the local kami, with the promise of addition to the pantheon of kami after death.
Those children who die before addition to the list are called “water children”, and are believed to cause troubles and plagues.
Mizuko are often worshipped in a Shinto shrine dedicated to stilling their anger and sadness, called mizuko kuyō.
Because Shinto has co-existed with Buddhism for well over a millennium, it is very difficult to untangle Shinto and Buddhist beliefs about the world.
Though Buddhism and Shinto have very different perspectives on the world, most Japanese do not see any challenge in reconciling these two very different religions, and practice both.
Thus it is common for people to practice Shinto in life yet have a Buddhist funeral.

Neo-Confucianism

Neo-Confucianism is a form of Confucianism that was primarily developed during the Song Dynasty, but which can be traced back to Han Yu and Li Ao (772-841) in the Tang Dynasty. It formed the basis of Confucian orthodoxy in the Qing Dynasty of China. It was a philosophy that attempted to merge certain basic elements of Confucian, Daoist, and Buddhist thought. Most important of early Neo-Confucianists was the Chinese thinker Zhu Xi (1130-1200).

Confucians of the Song Dynasty (960-1279) studied the classical works of their faith, but were also familiar with Buddhist and Taoist teachings. Buddhist thought offered to them many things that they considered worthy of admiration, including ideas such as the nature of the soul and the relation of the individual to the cosmos, ideas not yet fully explored by Confucianism. Song Confucians drew greatly from Buddhist thought as well as their own traditions, thus giving rise to the English-language name of “Neo-Confucianism”.One of the most important exponents of Neo-Confucianism was Zhu Xi. He was a rather prolific writer, maintaining and defending his Confucian beliefs of social harmony and proper personal conduct. One of his most remembered was the book Family Rituals, where he provided detailed advice on how to conduct weddings, funerals, family ceremonies, and the veneration of ancestors. Buddhist thought soon attracted him, and he began to argue in Confucian style for the Buddhist observance of high moral standards. He also believed that it was important to practical affairs that one should engage in both academic and philosophical pursuits, although his writings are concentrated more on issues of theoretical (as opposed to practical) significance. It is reputed that he wrote many essays attempting to explain how his ideas were not Buddhist or Taoist, and included some heated denunciations of Buddhism and Taoism. There were many competing views within the Neo-Confucian community, but overall, a system emerged that resembled both Buddhist and Taoist (Daoist) thought of the time and some of the ideas expressed in the Book of Changes (I Ching) as well as other yin yang theories associated with the Taiji symbol (Taijitu).

A well known Neo-Confucian motif is paintings of Confucius, Buddha, and Lao Tzu all drinking out of the same vinegar jar, paintings associated with the slogan “The three teachings are one!” While Neo-Confucianism incorporated Buddhist and Taoist ideas, many Neo-Confucianists strongly oppose Buddhism and Taoism. Indeed, they rejected the Buddhist and Taoist religions. One of Han Yu’s most famous essays decries the worship of Buddhist relics. Nonetheless, Neo-Confucian writings adapted Buddhist thoughts and beliefs to the Confucian interest. In China Neo-Confucianism was an officially-recognized creed from its development during the Song dynasty until the early twentieth century, and lands in the sphere of Song China (Korea, Vietnam, and Japan) were all deeply influenced by Neo-Confucianism for more than half a millennium.Zhu Xi’s formulation of the Neo-Confucian world view is as follows. He believed that the Tao of Tian is expressed in principle or li, but that it is sheathed in matter or qi. In this, his system is based on Buddhist systems of the time that divided things into principle (again, li), and shi. In the Neo-Confucian formulation, li in itself is pure and almost-perfect, but with the addition of qi, base emotions and conflicts arise. Human nature is originally good, the Neo-Confucians argued (following Mencius), but not pure unless action is taken to purify it. The imperative is then to purify one’s li.

However, in contrast to Buddhists and Taoists, neo-Confucians did not believe in an external world unconnected with the world of matter. In addition, Neo-Confucians in general rejected the idea of reincarnation and the associated idea of karma. Different Neo-Confucians had differing ideas for how to do so. Zhu Xi believed in gewu, the Investigation of Things, essentially an academic form of observational science, based on the idea that li lies within the world. Wang Yangming (Wang Shouren), probably the second most influential Neo-Confucian, came to another conclusion: namely, that if li is in all things, and li is in one’s heart, there is no better place to seek than within oneself. His preferred method of doing so was jingzuo, a practice that strongly resembles zazen or Chan (Zen) meditation. Wang Yangming developed the idea of innate knowing, arguing that every person knows from birth the difference between good and evil. Such knowledge is intuitive and not rational. These revolutionizing ideas of Wang Yangming would later inspire prominent Japanese thinkers like Motoori Norinaga, who argued that because of the Shinto deities, Japanese people alone had the intuitive ability to distinguish good and evil without complex rationalization.

Tao Te Ching

The Tao Te Ching or Dao De Jing, originally known as Laozi or Lao tzu, is a Chinese classic text. According to tradition, it was written around the 6th century BC by the sage Laozi, a record-keeper at the Zhou Dynasty court, by whose name the text is known in China. The text’s true authorship and date of composition or compilation are still debated. The Tao Te Ching is fundamental to the Taoist school of Chinese philosophy and strongly influenced other schools, such as Legalism and Neo-Confucianism. This ancient book is also central in Chinese religion, not only for Taoism but Chinese Buddhism, which when first introduced into China was largely interpreted through the use of Taoist words and concepts. Many Chinese artists, including poets, painters, calligraphers, and even gardeners have used the Tao Te Ching as a source of inspiration. Its influence has also spread widely outside East Asia, aided by hundreds of translations into Western languages. Depending on how the Tao Te Ching is interpreted, some ambiguous passages have multiple readings, ranging from political advice for rulers to practical wisdom for people. The following themes and concepts are central to interpreting the text:

Ineffability or Genesis

The Way that can be told of is not an unvarying way

The names that can be named are not unvarying names

It was from the Nameless that Heaven and Earth sprang

The named is but the mother that rears the ten thousand creatures, each after its kind

These famous first lines of the Tao Te Ching state that the Tao is ineffable i.e. Tao is nameless, goes beyond distinctions, and transcends language. In Laozi’s Qingjing Jing he clarified the term Tao was nominated as he was trying to describe a state of existence before it happened and before time or space. Way or path happened to be the side meaning of Tao, ineffability would be just poetic. This is the Chinese creation myth from the primordial Tao. In the first twenty-four words in Chapter one, the author articulated an abstract cosmogony, in what would be the world outside of the cave before it took shape by Plato in his allegory of the cave.

The Mysterious Female

The Valley Spirit never dies

It is named the Mysterious Female

And the doorway of the Mysterious Female

Is the base from which Heaven and Earth sprang

It is there within us all the while

Draw upon it as you will, it never runs dry

Like the above description of the ineffable Tao as “the mother that rears the ten thousand creatures”, the Tao Te Ching advocates “female” (or Yin) values, emphasizing the passive, solid, and quiescent qualities of nature (which is opposed to the active and energetic), and “having without possessing”. Waley’s translation can also be understood as the Esoteric Feminine in that it can be known intuitively, that must be complemented by the masculine, “male” (or Yang), again amplified in Qingjing Jing. Yin and Yang should be balanced, “Know masculinity, Maintain femininity, and be a ravine for all under heaven.”

Returning (Union with the Primordial)

In Tao the only motion is returning

The only useful quality, weakness

For though all creatures under heaven are the products of Being

Being itself is the product of Not-being

Another theme is the eternal return, or what Mair calls “the continual return of the myriad creatures to the cosmic principle from which they arose.” There is a contrast between the rigidity of death and the weakness of life: “When he is born, man is soft and weak; in death he becomes stiff and hard. The ten thousand creatures and all plants and trees while they are alive are supple and soft, but when dead they become brittle and dry.” This is returning to the beginning of things, or to one’s own childhood.

Emptiness

We put thirty spokes together and call it a wheel

But it is on the space where there is nothing that the usefulness of the wheel depends

We turn clay to make a vesselBut it is on the space where there is nothing that the usefulness of the vessel depends

We pierce doors and windows to make a house

And it is on these spaces where there is nothing that the usefulness of the house depends

Therefore just as we take advantage of what is, we should recognize the usefulness of what is not
Philosophical vacuity is a common theme among Asian wisdom traditions including Taoism (especially Wu wei “effortless action”), Buddhism, and some aspects of Confucianism. One could interpret the Tao Te Ching as a suite of variations on the “Powers of Nothingness”. This resonates with the Buddhist Shunyata philosophy of “form is emptiness, emptiness is form.” Looking at a traditional Chinese landscape, one can understand how emptiness (the unpainted) has the power of animating the trees, mountains, and rivers it surrounds. Emptiness can mean having no fixed preconceptions, preferences, intentions, or agenda. Since “The Sage has no heart of his own; He uses the heart of the people as his heart.” From a ruler’s point of view, it is a laissez-faire approach:

So a wise leader may say:

“I practice inaction, and the people look after themselves”

But from the Sage it is so hard at any price to get a single word

That when his task is accomplished, his work done

Throughout the country every one says:

“It happened of its own accord”

Knowledge and Humility

Knowing others is wisdom

Knowing the self is enlightenment

Mastering others requires force

Mastering the self requires strength

He who knows he has enough is rich

Perseverance is a sign of will power

He who stays where he is endures

To die but not to perish is to be eternally present

The Tao Te Ching praises self knowledge with emphasis on that knowledge coming with humility, to the extent of dis-acknowledging this knowledge. An interpretation on this knowledge being irrational in connection with Chapter 19 of Waley’s translation on “Banish wisdom, discard knowledge, And the people will be benefited a hundredfold.” seem to be inaccurate stemming from Feisheng qizi which is a reverse phrase meaning the truly exalted (sheng) and intellectual (zi) never claimed they are, which might as well be abolishing the notions of exaltation and intellectuality, meaning humbleness and humility of one’s enlightenment is crucial. Knowledge, like desire, should be diminished. “It was when intelligence and knowledge appeared that the Great Artifice began.”, similarly another examplar on lost in translation by a sinologist, the third and fourth stanzas reads Zihui zu You Dawei, which should be read in reverse as the first and second stanzas, that when the world is full deceit and falsehoods (Dawei), wisdom and intellectuality shall arise.

Philosophy #1: Great Learning

The book The Great Learning (Traditional Chinese: 大學) was selected as one of the “Four Books” in Confucianism. The book had come from a chapter in the Classic of Rites, also known as the Li Chi or the Li Ji. The Classic of Rites formed one of the 5 classics. Up until 1905 starting from the mid 12th century the “Four Books” had been used in examinations for state civil service (China). These books were the core of the curriculum for 1500 years.

The “Four Books” were selected by a neo-Confucian, Zhu Xi (Chu Hsi) during the Song Dynasty as a foundational introduction to Confucianism. His commentary of the book provided additional support to Confucius’ ideals. The book itself consists of a short main text attributed to the teachings of Confucius and then ten commentary chapters accredited to one of Confucius’ disciples, Zhen Xi.

The ideals of the book were Confucius’s; however the text was written after his death. Literary analyses have suggested that the text dates back to the Song Dynasty. In the 19th century the text was translated into English by a Scottish sinologist by the name of James Legge.

Principle teachings of the Great Learning

* Achieving a state of balance and refining one’s moral self such that it is a reflection of the Dao (Way).

* Ample rest and reflection such that one achieves peace of mind. When one is calm and reflected, the Way will be revealed to them.

* Setting priorities and knowing what is important is essential in one’s quest for moral refinement, for it allows one to focus on that which is of the greatest importance and that which is in line with the Way as outlined in Confucian teachings.

* One must brings one’s affairs and relationships into order and harmony. If one hopes to attain order in the state, one must first bring his/her own family and personal life into order through self-cultivation and the expansion of ones knowledge and the “investigation of things.”

* Each and every person is capable of learning and self cultivation regardless of social, economic or political status. This, in turn, means that success in learning is the result of the effort of the individual as opposed to an inability to learn.

* One must treat education as an intricate and interrelated system where one must strive for balance. No one aspect of learning is isolated from the other and failure to cultivate a single aspect of one’s learning will lead to the failure of learning as a whole.

A term used in the text, “qin-min” (親民) which James Legge, following Zhu Xi, amended to “xin-min” (新民) and translated “renovating the people” instead of “loving the people”. It became the name of the People First Party (Republic of China), one of the minor parties in Taiwan (Legge).

The Main Text of the Great Learning
* The Way of the great learning involves manifesting virtue, renovating the people, and abiding by the highest good. (...) 大學之道在明明德，在親民，在止於至善 (...)

* The ancients who wished to illustrate illustrious virtue throughout the world, first ordered well their own States. 古之欲明明德於天下者，先治其國

* Wishing to order well their States, they first regulated their families. 欲治其國者，先齊其家

* Wishing to regulate their families, they first cultivated their persons. 欲齊其家者，先修其身

* Wishing to cultivate their persons, they first rectified their hearts. 欲修其身者，先正其心

* Wishing to rectify their hearts, they first sought to be sincere in their thoughts. 欲正其心者，先誠其意

* Wishing to be sincere in their thoughts, they first extended to the utmost of their knowledge. 欲誠其意者，先致其知

* Such extension of knowledge lay in the investigation of things. 致知在格物

* Things being investigated, knowledge became complete. 物格而後知至

* Their knowledge being complete, their thoughts were sincere. 知至而後意誠

* Their thoughts being sincere, their hearts were then rectified. 意誠而後心正

* Their hearts being rectified, their persons were cultivated. 心正而後身修

* Their persons being cultivated, their families were regulated. 身修而後家齊

* Their families being regulated, their States were rightly governed. 家齊而後國治

* Their States being rightly governed, the entire world was at peace. 國治而後天下平

* From the Son of Heaven down to the mass of the people, all must consider the cultivation of the person the root of everything besides. (...) 自天子以至於庶人，壹是皆以修身為本 (...)

The Great Learning is significant because it expresses many themes of Chinese philosophy and political thinking, and has therefore been extremely influential both in classical and modern Chinese thought. Government, self cultivation and investigation of things are linked. It links together individual action in the form of self-cultivation with higher goals such as ultimate world peace as well as linking together the spiritual and the material. By defining the path of learning (tao) in governmental and social terms, the Great Learning both links the spiritual with the practical, and creates a vision of tao that is radically different than that presented by Taoism.

In particular, the Great Learning sets Confucianism as being this-worldly rather than other-worldly. Instead of basing its authority on an external deity, the Great Learning bases its authority on the practices of ancient kings. The text also sets up a number of controversies that have underlain Chinese philosophy and political thinking. For example, one major controversy has been to define exactly the investigation of things. What things are to be investigated and how has been one of the crucial issues of Chinese philosophy.

The Great Learning is significant because it expresses many themes of Chinese philosophy and political thinking, and has therefore been extremely influential both in classical and modern Chinese thought. The Great Learning represented a key aspect of the Chinese curriculum for nearly 1500 years and can be found in virtually all aspects of Chinese culture. The Great Learning within the Chinese curriculum acted as a “springboard” for further learning, “self cultivation and investigation of things.” Through self-cultivation one can bring order and harmony to one’s mind, personal life, family, state and the world as a whole. By defining the path of learning (Dao) in governmental and social terms, the Great Learning links the spiritual realm with daily life, thus creating a vision of the Way (Dao) that is radically different than that of non-action as presented by Daoism.

The Great Learning, on the other hand, requires action on the part of the individual towards the ultimate goal of self-cultivation through the “expansion of knowledge and the investigation of things.” The Great Learning presents Confucianism as being this-worldly rather than other-worldly. As opposed to basing its authority on an external deity, the Great Learning bases its authority on the practices of ancient kings.